Budding and Grafting: Principles, Techniques and Good Practice
Introduction
Budding and grafting are important methods of vegetative propagation used in horticulture to produce new plants from existing plant material.
Unlike propagation from seed, vegetative propagation produces plants from vegetative parts of a parent plant. Because the new plant is produced from the parent plant’s tissues, it can retain the characteristics of the selected plant.
Budding and grafting are particularly useful where a plant:
- does not come readily from seed
- does not root easily from cuttings
- needs to be propagated on a particular rootstock
- has desirable characteristics that need to be retained
- needs to combine the characteristics of two plants.
These techniques are widely used in fruit production, ornamental horticulture and nursery production.
At Level 2, students should understand the principles behind budding and grafting, recognise the main terminology, understand the importance of compatibility and be able to describe or carry out appropriate basic techniques.
The central principle is:
Budding and grafting work because living plant tissues are brought together so that they can form a successful graft union.
1. What is vegetative propagation?
Vegetative propagation produces new plants from parts of an existing plant rather than from seed.
Methods include:
- cuttings
- division
- layering
- budding
- grafting
- specialised structures such as runners and offsets.
Budding and grafting are different from many other propagation techniques because they involve joining tissues from two plants, or different parts of the same plant.
2. What is grafting?
Grafting is the process of joining a piece of one plant to another plant so that they grow together.
The two main components are:
Rootstock
The rootstock is the plant providing the root system.
It may influence:
- final plant size
- vigour
- adaptation to soil conditions
- resistance to some pests or diseases
- tolerance of environmental conditions.
Scion
The scion is the piece of plant material selected for its desirable characteristics.
It normally provides the:
- shoots
- leaves
- flowers
- fruit
- variety characteristics.
A successful graft allows the rootstock and scion to function as one plant.
3. What is budding?
Budding is a specialised form of grafting in which a single bud, together with a small amount of associated plant tissue, is inserted into a rootstock.
Instead of attaching a whole shoot or stem section, the propagator uses a bud as the scion material.
Budding can use relatively little plant material, making it useful when propagation material is limited.
4. Rootstock and scion
Understanding the relationship between rootstock and scion is essential.
The rootstock provides the root system.
The scion provides the desired top growth.
For example, a fruit tree may be produced using:
Rootstock: controls characteristics such as vigour and eventual tree size.
Scion: provides the desired fruit variety.
The resulting tree therefore combines characteristics from both components.
This is one of the major advantages of grafting.
5. Why use grafting?
Grafting can be used to:
- propagate named cultivars
- control plant size
- combine useful characteristics
- produce fruit trees
- repair damaged trees
- change the variety growing on an established rootstock
- propagate plants that are difficult to root from cuttings.
It is particularly important in fruit-tree production.
Many named fruit cultivars are propagated vegetatively because growing them from seed would not reliably reproduce the characteristics of the parent cultivar.
6. Why use budding?
Budding has several advantages.
It:
- uses relatively little scion material
- can be efficient for nursery production
- can be suitable for many fruit trees and ornamentals
- can be used when suitable buds are available.
A skilled propagator can produce many plants from a relatively small amount of desirable plant material.
7. The science behind grafting
The key to successful grafting is the vascular cambium.
The vascular cambium is a layer of actively dividing cells between the wood and inner bark of a stem.
It produces:
- xylem towards the inside
- phloem towards the outside.
When suitable tissues from the rootstock and scion are brought into close contact, new cells can form across the wound.
This process can eventually establish vascular connections between the two components.
The resulting connection is called the:
graft union
8. Why cambium contact matters
Simply placing two pieces of plant material together does not guarantee a successful graft.
The cambium of the scion must be positioned so that it can connect with compatible cambial tissue on the rootstock.
This is why:
- accurate cutting
- clean surfaces
- correct positioning
- appropriate pressure
- suitable aftercare
are all important.
If the cambial layers do not make suitable contact, the graft may fail.
9. Callusing
After grafting, the plant responds to the wound.
New cells can develop around the graft area, producing callus tissue.
Callus can help bridge the two pieces of plant material.
Further development allows vascular connections to become established.
This process takes time and depends on:
- plant species
- temperature
- moisture
- health of the plant material
- compatibility
- grafting technique.
10. Compatibility
Not every plant can be successfully grafted to every other plant.
Successful grafting generally depends on compatibility between the rootstock and scion.
Closely related plants are generally more likely to be compatible than unrelated plants, although compatibility varies between species and even between cultivars and rootstocks.
Compatibility can be:
- strong
- weak
- delayed
- absent.
A graft that initially appears successful may sometimes develop problems later if the combination is poorly compatible.
11. Choosing suitable plant material
Good propagation begins with healthy material.
Select material that is:
- healthy
- vigorous
- free from obvious pests
- free from disease
- correctly developed
- appropriate for the technique.
Do not use obviously diseased or badly damaged material for propagation.
Doing so risks passing problems into the new plant.
12. Hygiene
Hygiene is extremely important in propagation.
Knives and other cutting tools should be:
- sharp
- clean
- maintained properly.
Contaminated tools can potentially spread plant pathogens between plants.
The propagation area should also be kept clean.
Good hygiene includes:
- cleaning tools
- keeping propagation surfaces clean
- handling plant material carefully
- removing diseased material appropriately.
13. Grafting knives
A grafting knife is designed to make precise cuts.
The blade should be:
- sharp
- clean
- maintained.
A blunt knife can:
- crush tissue
- produce ragged cuts
- make accurate alignment difficult
- increase damage to the plant material.
Knife safety is essential.
The blade should always be directed away from the body and hands.
14. Common grafting methods
There are many grafting techniques.
Examples include:
- whip and tongue grafting
- whip grafting
- cleft grafting
- side grafting
- bark grafting
- approach grafting.
The method selected depends on:
- plant species
- size of the rootstock
- size of the scion
- time of year
- purpose of the graft.
At Level 2, it is useful to understand the principles behind several methods rather than treating grafting as one single technique.
15. Whip and tongue grafting
Whip and tongue grafting is a common technique for joining rootstock and scion of similar diameter.
Both pieces are cut with long sloping cuts.
A second cut creates a tongue in each piece.
The two components are then fitted together.
The advantages include:
- large area of contact
- good stability
- accurate alignment
- effective use of cambial tissue.
16. Making the cuts
The cuts should be:
- clean
- smooth
- controlled
- appropriately shaped.
Repeatedly cutting the same surface can damage tissue.
The objective is to create a suitable matching surface while exposing healthy tissue.
Accuracy is more important than speed.
17. Joining the graft
Once the cuts have been made, the rootstock and scion are brought together.
The cambial layers should be aligned.
If the stems are exactly the same diameter, alignment may be possible on both sides.
If they differ in diameter, it may only be possible to align the cambium on one side.
One-sided alignment can still be successful if sufficient cambial contact is achieved.
18. Securing the graft
The graft must remain firmly in position.
Materials may include:
- grafting tape
- budding tape
- suitable grafting rubber
- other appropriate tying materials.
The purpose is to:
- maintain alignment
- prevent movement
- reduce drying
- support the graft while union develops.
The binding should be secure without unnecessarily damaging the plant.
19. Grafting compounds and sealing
Some grafting systems use a suitable sealant or grafting compound.
The purpose may include:
- reducing moisture loss
- protecting the graft surface
- helping prevent contamination.
The exact products and methods depend on the technique.
Manufacturer instructions should be followed where commercial products are used.
20. Budding
Budding involves inserting a single bud into a prepared area of rootstock.
One of the best-known methods is:
T-budding
This is sometimes called shield budding when the bud is removed with a small shield-shaped piece of bark and tissue.
21. T-budding
A T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the rootstock.
The bark is carefully opened.
A bud shield is then prepared from the scion material and inserted beneath the bark flaps.
The bud is positioned so that the cambial tissues can make suitable contact.
The area is then secured.
The bud remains dormant initially and may develop when the plant is ready to grow.
22. Choosing a bud
A suitable bud should be:
- healthy
- well developed
- appropriately mature
- free from pests and disease.
The surrounding plant material should also be healthy.
The propagator should avoid damaged or poorly developed buds.
23. Budwood
The material from which buds are taken is often called budwood.
Good budwood should be:
- healthy
- true to type
- appropriate for the required variety
- at a suitable stage of development.
Budwood should be handled carefully to avoid:
- drying
- contamination
- mechanical damage.
24. When is budding carried out?
Budding is usually carried out when the plant is physiologically suitable and the bark can be manipulated appropriately.
The exact timing varies according to:
- species
- climate
- growth stage
- budding technique.
T-budding is commonly associated with periods when the bark is “slipping”, meaning that the bark can be separated sufficiently from the underlying tissues.
Timing should therefore be based on the condition of the plant rather than a date alone.
25. Aftercare
After grafting or budding, the new union requires protection.
Depending on the method, aftercare may include:
- maintaining appropriate moisture
- protecting the graft from movement
- monitoring the union
- removing unwanted shoots
- checking the binding
- protecting new growth.
The graft should be monitored regularly.
26. Removing competing shoots
The rootstock may continue to produce shoots below the graft.
These shoots should normally be removed where appropriate because they can compete with the scion.
If rootstock shoots are allowed to dominate, they may:
- take resources from the scion
- grow more vigorously
- reduce the success of the grafted variety.
This is particularly important when managing grafted fruit trees.
27. Recognising a successful graft
Signs of successful grafting may include:
- healthy scion growth
- development of new leaves
- continued growth
- a stable graft union
- appropriate development of the new plant.
Failure may result in:
- wilting
- drying out
- dead scion tissue
- poor union formation
- movement at the graft
- infection.
Monitoring is therefore essential.
28. Common causes of graft failure
Grafts can fail for several reasons.
Poor cambial alignment
The tissues do not make adequate contact.
Dirty or damaged cuts
The surfaces are contaminated or crushed.
Incompatible materials
The rootstock and scion cannot form a successful long-term union.
Drying out
The exposed tissues lose too much moisture.
Movement
The graft shifts before the union develops.
Incorrect timing
The plant is not physiologically suitable for the technique.
Poor-quality material
The scion or rootstock is weak, diseased or damaged.
Successful grafting therefore depends on several factors working together.
29. Budding versus grafting
| Budding | Grafting |
| Uses a single bud | Uses a scion section |
| Requires relatively little material | Requires a larger piece of scion material |
| Often uses T-budding or similar techniques | Includes whip and tongue, cleft and other methods |
| Bud is inserted into rootstock | Scion is joined to rootstock |
| Common in fruit and ornamental production | Widely used in fruit and ornamental production |
Both methods depend on successful union between compatible plant tissues.
30. Advantages of budding and grafting
These techniques allow horticulturists to:
- reproduce named cultivars
- combine desirable characteristics
- use specialised rootstocks
- control plant size
- produce fruit trees efficiently
- repair damaged plants
- propagate difficult plants.
They are particularly valuable in commercial horticulture because they allow predictable combinations of rootstock and scion characteristics.
31. Disadvantages and limitations
Budding and grafting also have limitations.
They:
- require skill
- require accurate cutting
- depend on compatibility
- can fail
- require appropriate timing
- require suitable propagation material
- can transmit pests or diseases if unhealthy material is used.
They are therefore not simply a matter of cutting and joining two pieces of plant material.
32. Propagation and plant health
Plant health is particularly important when grafting.
A disease-free rootstock and scion should be used wherever possible.
Propagation can unintentionally spread:
- fungal pathogens
- bacterial pathogens
- viruses
- pests.
Using healthy, traceable plant material and maintaining good hygiene are therefore important elements of professional propagation.
33. Labelling
Grafted and budded plants should be labelled accurately.
Labels may include:
- plant name
- cultivar
- rootstock
- propagation method
- date
- batch or source information.
Accurate labelling is particularly important in nurseries.
Without good records, different cultivars or rootstocks can easily become mixed.
34. Practical grafting exercise
A suitable Level 2 exercise is to practise the principles of a simple graft using appropriate plant material under supervision.
Before beginning
Identify:
- rootstock
- scion
- grafting method
- appropriate tools
- PPE
- hygiene requirements.
Prepare
- Clean the work area.
- Clean and inspect the knife.
- Select healthy plant material.
- Confirm compatibility.
- Prepare all materials before cutting.
Graft
- Make the required cut in the rootstock.
- Prepare the scion.
- Identify the cambial regions.
- Align the cambium.
- Join the pieces.
- Secure the union.
- Apply suitable protection where required.
- Label the graft.
Aftercare
Monitor:
- graft union
- scion health
- rootstock shoots
- signs of drying
- signs of successful growth.
35. Practical budding exercise
For a budding exercise:
- Identify a suitable rootstock.
- Select healthy budwood.
- Prepare the bud shield.
- Make the appropriate cut in the rootstock.
- Insert the bud.
- Align the tissues.
- Secure the bud.
- Label the plant.
- Monitor the bud union.
- Remove or adjust ties according to the technique used.
All knife work should be supervised and carried out using safe working practices.
36. Safety
Budding and grafting involve sharp knives.
Good practice includes:
- use a suitable knife
- keep the blade sharp
- cut away from the body
- keep hands out of the blade path
- maintain a stable working position
- do not rush
- pass tools safely
- store knives securely
- follow site risk assessments.
Sharp tools are often safer when properly maintained and used correctly than blunt tools that require excessive force.
37. Common mistakes
Mistake 1: Using unsuitable plant material
Weak or diseased material reduces the chance of success.
Mistake 2: Making ragged cuts
Poor cuts reduce the quality of the graft surfaces.
Mistake 3: Failing to align cambium
The graft may fail to establish the necessary connection.
Mistake 4: Allowing the graft to dry out
Exposed tissues can lose moisture quickly.
Mistake 5: Allowing movement
Movement can disrupt developing tissues.
Mistake 6: Forgetting the rootstock
Rootstock shoots can outgrow the desired scion.
Mistake 7: Failing to label
Unlabelled plants can lead to cultivar and rootstock confusion.
Mistake 8: Using contaminated tools
Tools can spread plant pathogens.
38. Key terminology
Bud
A developing shoot structure containing embryonic growth.
Budding
A form of grafting using a single bud as the scion.
Cambium
A layer of actively dividing cells that produces vascular tissues.
Graft
A plant produced by joining compatible plant tissues.
Graft union
The area where rootstock and scion become joined.
Rootstock
The plant providing the root system.
Scion
The plant material selected to provide the desired top growth.
Budwood
Plant material from which suitable buds are taken.
Callus
New tissue produced during wound healing and graft union formation.
Compatibility
The ability of rootstock and scion tissues to form and maintain a successful union.
39. Knowledge check
Question 1
What is vegetative propagation?
Question 2
What is a rootstock?
Question 3
What is a scion?
Question 4
What is the main difference between budding and grafting?
Question 5
Why is the cambium important?
Question 6
What is a graft union?
Question 7
What is T-budding?
Question 8
Why must grafting tools be sharp and clean?
Question 9
Why is compatibility important?
Question 10
Give three reasons why grafts may fail.
Question 11
Why should rootstock shoots be removed?
Question 12
Why is accurate labelling important?
Question 13
Give three advantages of grafting.
Question 14
Why should healthy plant material be used?
Question 15
Give three safety precautions when using a grafting knife.
40. Key Level 2 knowledge
A Level 2 horticulture student should be able to:
- explain vegetative propagation
- define budding and grafting
- identify rootstock and scion
- explain the role of the cambium
- understand graft union formation
- understand the importance of compatibility
- recognise common grafting techniques
- understand the principles of T-budding
- select suitable propagation material
- understand the importance of tool hygiene
- explain why accurate cambial alignment matters
- understand the importance of securing grafts
- understand basic aftercare
- recognise common causes of graft failure
- understand the importance of removing rootstock shoots
- understand the importance of labelling
- work safely with grafting knives
- understand the horticultural uses of budding and grafting.
Conclusion
Budding and grafting demonstrate the way horticulture combines practical skill with plant science.
The success of a graft depends on understanding what is happening inside the plant. The rootstock provides the root system, while the scion provides the desired top growth. The cambium is brought into suitable contact so that new tissue can develop and establish a functional connection between the two components.
Successful propagation therefore requires:
healthy material + compatible plants + accurate cuts + cambial contact + secure joining + appropriate aftercare.
Budding follows the same basic principle but uses a single bud rather than a larger section of shoot.
These techniques are particularly valuable because they allow horticulturists to combine desirable characteristics that cannot easily be reproduced by seed.
The essential lesson is:
Budding and grafting are not simply techniques for joining plants. They are techniques for joining living tissues successfully.
Understanding this principle allows students to move beyond memorising propagation methods and begin to understand why the techniques work.
References
City & Guilds (2018) Level 2 Award/Certificate/Diploma in Practical Horticulture Skills (7573-02): Qualification Handbook. London: City & Guilds.
Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) (2022) RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles and Practices of Horticulture: Qualification Specification. London: Royal Horticultural Society.
Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) (2022) RHS Level 2 Diploma in the Principles and Practices of Horticulture: Qualification Specification. London: Royal Horticultural Society.
Royal Horticultural Society (2026) RHS Level 2 Qualifications. London: Royal Horticultural Society.
Royal Horticultural Society (2026) Grafting and Budding. London: Royal Horticultural Society.
Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E., Davies, F.T. and Geneve, R.L. (2011) Hartmann & Kester’s Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. 8th edn. Boston: Prentice Hall.
Toogood, A. (ed.) (2006) RHS Propagating Plants. London: Dorling Kindersley.